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266 pages

Corporate and M&A Cross-border M&A in China Cross-border M&A in China succeeds or fails on structure. Whether a buyer acquires onshore equity, an offshore holding company or assets determines…
Corporate and M&A Private Equity and Venture Capital Transactions in China Private equity and venture capital in China now run largely on RMB capital and PRC-law documents. Investor protections that are routine offshore,…
Corporate and M&A Joint Ventures in China Joint ventures in China are now ordinary companies under the Company Law, and the special statutory protections of the old joint venture…
Corporate and M&A Listed Company M&A and Takeovers in China Listed company M&A and takeovers in China have been reshaped by reforms since 2024: easier foreign strategic investment, staged share consideration and…
Corporate and M&A Take-Private Transactions for Chinese Companies Take-private transactions for US and Hong Kong-listed Chinese companies combine offshore corporate law, listing rules, acquisition finance and mainland procedures. This guide…
Corporate and M&A Strategic M&A and Special Situations in China Strategic M&A and special situations in China include carve-outs, distressed purchases, state-owned asset transactions and contested control battles. They offer value but…
Corporate and M&A PE Exits in China PE exits in China no longer default to an IPO. Share reduction rules, slower listing pipelines and buyer clearances mean sponsors now…
Corporate and M&A Corporate Governance and the Company Law Corporate governance and the Company Law in China changed fundamentally on 1 July 2024. Capital must now be paid within five years,…
Corporate and M&A Group Restructuring and Reorganisation in China Group restructuring in China uses a handful of tools, including equity transfers, mergers, divisions, asset transfers and capital changes, each with different…
Corporate and M&A Liquidation and Deregistration of Foreign-Invested Enterprises The liquidation of foreign-invested enterprises in China combines the Company Law liquidation procedure with tax, customs, foreign exchange and employment steps. Since…
Corporate and M&A Warranty and Indemnity Insurance in China Deals Warranty and indemnity insurance has moved from novelty to a routine tool in Asian M&A, and buyers of Chinese targets increasingly ask…
Corporate and M&A General Counsel and Retained Legal Support for China Operations Many foreign groups run substantial China operations without an in-house lawyer on the ground, and many Chinese groups expanding abroad lack counsel…
Corporate and M&A Commercial Contracts and Outsourcing in China Most of the value a foreign business creates in China flows through ordinary contracts: supply, distribution, services, licensing and outsourcing. Getting commercial…
Foreign Investment and Market Entry Market Entry and Foreign-Invested Enterprises in China Setting up a foreign-invested enterprise is now, for most sectors, a registration exercise rather than an approval process. The harder decisions are…
Foreign Investment and Market Entry Foreign Investment Security Review in China China's foreign investment security review regime catches defence-related investments and acquisitions of control in sensitive sectors. It has no turnover or value…
Foreign Investment and Market Entry Foreign Exchange (SAFE) Compliance for Foreign Investors China's capital account remains managed, and every foreign investment touches the foreign exchange rules: getting capital in, converting and using it, borrowing…
Foreign Investment and Market Entry Reinvestment and Localisation Incentives in China China is now actively rewarding foreign groups that keep their profits in the country. Reinvestment incentives, including a tax credit for reinvested…
Foreign Investment and Market Entry Red-Chip and VIE Structures Offshore holding structures have carried China's technology and consumer champions to Hong Kong and New York for two decades. Red-chip and VIE…
Foreign Investment and Market Entry Japan Desk: Japanese Investment in China Japanese companies built some of the deepest supply chains in China over four decades. Today the questions they bring are different: how…
Foreign Investment and Market Entry Korea Desk: Korean Investment in China Korean investment in China is concentrated in strategic industries, from memory chips and batteries to displays, automotive parts, cosmetics and retail. Korean…
Foreign Investment and Market Entry Taiwan Investors in the Mainland Taiwan businesses have been among the largest and longest-standing investors in the Mainland, particularly in electronics, machinery, food and consumer goods. For…
Outbound Investment and Going Global Outbound Direct Investment (ODI) Approvals in China ODI approvals are the Chinese procedures a domestic enterprise must complete before investing abroad: NDRC approval or filing, MOFCOM approval or filing,…
Outbound Investment and Going Global Overseas Compliance for Chinese Enterprises Overseas compliance for Chinese enterprises means meeting two sets of expectations at once: Chinese guidance on managing overseas operations, and the anti-bribery,…
Outbound Investment and Going Global International Projects and Overseas EPC Overseas EPC contracts carry Chinese contractors' engineering skills into power, transport, water and industrial projects worldwide, but they also concentrate risk: fixed…
Outbound Investment and Going Global Bilateral Investment Treaties and Political Risk Bilateral investment treaties give Chinese investors abroad, and foreign investors in China, legal protection against expropriation, discrimination and unfair treatment, enforceable through…
Outbound Investment and Going Global Multilateral Development Bank Sanctions and Integrity Multilateral development bank sanctions can exclude a company from bank-financed contracts across the world, and cross-debarment means one bank's decision is often…
Outbound Investment and Going Global Southeast Asia Market Entry for Chinese Companies Southeast Asia market entry has become a central strategy for Chinese manufacturers, technology firms and consumer brands, driven by supply-chain diversification, regional…
Outbound Investment and Going Global Latin America and Emerging Markets Chinese investment in Latin America and other emerging markets has shifted from large state-led resource and infrastructure deals towards manufacturing, energy transition,…
Outbound Investment and Going Global EU–China Investment EU–China investment has entered a more demanding phase. Chinese companies remain significant investors in European manufacturing, energy and technology, but they now…
Outbound Investment and Going Global US–China Cross-Border Issues US–China cross-border business now operates under overlapping controls on investment, technology, trade, data and finance, imposed by both governments and changing frequently.…
Capital Markets A-share, Hong Kong and US IPOs: Choosing a Venue Choosing between A-share, Hong Kong and US IPOs is now as much a regulatory decision as a valuation one. This page compares…
Capital Markets STAR Market Listing, ChiNext and Beijing Stock Exchange A STAR Market listing, a ChiNext IPO and a Beijing Stock Exchange listing each serve a different kind of innovative company. This…
Capital Markets HKEX Chapter 18A and 18C Listings Chapter 18A and 18C listings let biotech and specialist technology companies join the HKEX Main Board without a profit record. This guide…
Capital Markets H-share Placements and Follow-on Offerings H-share placements let Hong Kong-listed Mainland companies raise equity overnight. This guide explains the Hong Kong mandate and pricing rules, the Mainland…
Capital Markets NEEQ Listings: China's New Third Board A NEEQ listing makes a Chinese SME a non-listed public company with transferable shares and access to private placements. This page explains…
Capital Markets De-SPAC Transactions for Chinese Companies A de-SPAC transaction can take a Chinese company public with negotiated valuation and committed funding, but it carries IPO-level regulation in Hong…
Capital Markets Onshore Debt Capital Markets in China China's onshore debt capital markets divide between the PBOC-supervised interbank market and the CSRC-supervised exchanges. This page explains the venues, products and…
Capital Markets Offshore Bonds for Chinese Issuers Offshore bonds give Chinese groups access to international investors, but every issue starts with Mainland regulation. This page explains NDRC foreign debt…
Capital Markets Panda Bonds: Renminbi Bonds for Foreign Issuers Panda bonds let overseas issuers raise renminbi in China's domestic bond market. This page explains registration routes, disclosure, accounting and rating requirements,…
Capital Markets Convertible and Exchangeable Bonds in China Convertible and exchangeable bonds give China-related issuers and shareholders cheaper funding in exchange for equity upside. This page explains the onshore CSRC…
Capital Markets Hybrid Securities in China: Perpetuals and Preference Shares Hybrid securities in China let issuers raise long-dated capital that behaves partly like equity and partly like debt. This guide explains the…
Capital Markets Securitisation in China: ABS and ABN Securitisation in China runs through three separate channels: credit ABS for financial institutions, exchange-traded enterprise ABS and interbank asset-backed notes. This guide…
Capital Markets China REITs and Pre-REITs China REITs have grown from a 2020 infrastructure pilot into a two-track market that, since 31 December 2025, also covers shopping centres,…
Capital Markets Listed Company Advisory and Disclosure in China Listed company disclosure in China changed materially in 2025 and 2026: new CSRC disclosure measures took effect on 1 July 2025, supervisory…
Capital Markets Securities Compliance and CSRC Enforcement CSRC enforcement has intensified since 2024, with coordinated administrative, criminal and civil action against financial fraud and the third parties who enable…
Capital Markets Hong Kong-Mainland Market Connectivity: Stock Connect and Beyond Hong Kong-Mainland market connectivity links the two markets for equities, bonds, interest rate swaps and retail investment products. This guide explains how…
Banking and Finance Syndicated and Corporate Lending in China Syndicated lending in China is governed by NFRA rules for onshore banks and by market-standard documents offshore. Most cross-border deals combine the…
Banking and Finance Acquisition and Leveraged Finance in China Acquisition finance in China changed materially in 2026, when NFRA's new M&A loan measures raised leverage and tenor limits for onshore bank…
Banking and Finance Project Finance in China and for Chinese Sponsors Project finance in China looks familiar to international lenders on paper but works differently in practice: equity minimums, franchise rules, land and…
Banking and Finance Asset, Aircraft and Vessel Finance and Leasing Aircraft and vessel leasing in China is one of the largest asset finance markets in the world, driven by bank-owned financial leasing…
Banking and Finance Trade Finance and Export Credit in China Trade finance in China combines international banking practice, such as UCP 600 letters of credit and demand guarantees, with Chinese court rules…
Banking and Finance Derivatives and Structured Products in China Derivatives in China are now underpinned by a statute, the Futures and Derivatives Law, which recognises master agreements and close-out netting. From…
Banking and Finance Pre-IPO and Take-Private Financing Pre-IPO and take-private financing sit at opposite ends of the listing cycle but raise the same core issues for China-related companies: how…
Banking and Finance Fund Finance for China-Focused Funds Fund finance in China operates on two tracks. Offshore US dollar funds investing in China use subscription lines, NAV facilities and GP…
Banking and Finance Banking and Financial Regulation in China Financial regulation in China was reorganised in 2023 and is still being rebuilt in statute. Foreign banks, non-bank institutions and their investors…
Banking and Finance Financial Institution M&A and Establishment in China Financial institution establishment in China, and acquisitions of licensed institutions, are driven by regulatory approval rather than by signing and closing. Foreign…
Banking and Finance Islamic Finance and China Islamic finance and China meet mainly outside mainland China: in Gulf, Southeast Asian and Central Asian projects with Chinese sponsors, in Hong…
Funds and Asset Management RMB and USD Fund Formation RMB and USD fund formation starts with one question: where are the investors and where are the assets? Onshore RMB funds and…
Funds and Asset Management Fund Manager Registration with AMAC Fund manager registration with AMAC is the gateway to managing private funds in mainland China. Since the 2023 reforms, registration is a…
Funds and Asset Management Private Fund Operations and Compliance Private fund compliance in China is now a continuous obligation, not a filing exercise. State Council regulations, CSRC rules and AMAC guidelines…
Funds and Asset Management QFLP, QDLP and QFII Schemes QFLP, QDLP and QFII schemes are the main managed channels between China's capital account and global markets. QFII gives foreign institutions access…
Funds and Asset Management LP Investments, Secondaries and Continuation Funds Secondaries and continuation funds in China have moved from niche to mainstream as onshore and offshore funds look for liquidity in a…
Funds and Asset Management GP Stake Transactions GP stake transactions, in which investors buy minority or controlling interests in fund managers, are growing in and around China as founders…
Funds and Asset Management Fund Tax Structuring Fund tax structuring determines what investors actually receive from a China strategy. Onshore partnerships are tax-transparent but treat individual, corporate and foreign…
Funds and Asset Management Public Securities Investment Funds Public securities investment funds are China's main retail investment product and a growing channel for pension and long-term savings. Global managers can…
Funds and Asset Management Institutional Asset and Wealth Management Institutional asset and wealth management in China is dominated by banks' wealth management subsidiaries, insurers, trust companies, securities firms and pension managers,…
Fintech and Digital Assets Fintech Regulation in China Fintech regulation in China treats any financial activity as licensed activity, whatever technology delivers it. This page explains the regulators, the licensing…
Fintech and Digital Assets Payments and Bank Card Clearing in China Payments and bank card clearing in China sit within two PBOC licensing regimes: one for non-bank payment institutions, in force since May…
Fintech and Digital Assets Web3 and Virtual Assets in China Virtual assets in China remain off-limits as a financial business on the mainland, and a February 2026 notice from eight authorities restated…
Fintech and Digital Assets RWA Tokenisation in China RWA tokenisation in China is prohibited onshore unless approved, but offshore issuance based on mainland assets is now possible through approval or…
Fintech and Digital Assets Stablecoins and Hong Kong Virtual Asset Licensing Hong Kong stablecoin licensing began on 1 August 2025 and the HKMA granted its first issuer licences in April 2026. This page…
Fintech and Digital Assets Digital Platforms and Financial Market Infrastructure Financial market infrastructure in China has been governed by unified PBOC and CSRC measures since 1 October 2025. This page explains which…
Fintech and Digital Assets Quantitative and Programme Trading Rules Programme trading rules in China now cover both securities and futures markets, with exchange implementing rules in force since 7 July 2025.…
Fintech and Digital Assets Generative AI in Financial Services in China Generative AI in financial services in China is governed by general AI and data rules and by financial regulators' expectations of accountability…
Antitrust and Competition Merger Control Filings in China Merger control filings in China are required for any transaction that meets the turnover thresholds, wherever the parties are based. Since January…
Antitrust and Competition Antitrust Investigations and Leniency in China Antitrust investigations in China can move quickly from a complaint or a regulatory interview to an on-site inspection. Understanding SAMR's powers, the…
Antitrust and Competition Abuse of Dominance in China Abuse of dominance in China is assessed under Chapter III of the Anti-Monopoly Law and SAMR's 2023 implementing rules. The law combines…
Antitrust and Competition Cartels in China Cartels in China are prohibited by Article 17 of the Anti-Monopoly Law and remain a steady focus of SAMR and provincial regulators,…
Antitrust and Competition Vertical Agreements and Distribution in China Vertical agreements in China are regulated more strictly than many foreign suppliers expect. Resale price maintenance has been the most frequently penalised…
Antitrust and Competition Antitrust Compliance Programmes in China Antitrust compliance programmes for China need more than a translated global policy. Enforcement priorities, the role of trade associations, local sales practices…
Antitrust and Competition Private Antitrust Litigation in China Private antitrust litigation in China has become a real option for customers, distributors, competitors and licensees. The Supreme People's Court's 2024 interpretation…
Antitrust and Competition Anti-Unfair Competition Law in China China's Anti-Unfair Competition Law was comprehensively revised on 27 June 2025 and has applied since 15 October 2025. The revision extends the…
Antitrust and Competition Fair Competition Review in China Fair competition review in China requires government bodies to check new laws, regulations and policy measures for effects that exclude or restrict…
Antitrust and Competition SEP and FRAND Under Competition Law in China SEP and FRAND in China sit at the intersection of patent law, competition law and global litigation strategy. SAMR's anti-monopoly guidelines for…
Antitrust and Competition Regulated Access to Infrastructure in China Access to infrastructure in China is governed by two overlapping regimes: sector rules that require pipelines, grids and networks to open to…
Antitrust and Competition Consumer Protection in China Consumer protection in China is enforced by market regulators, courts, consumer associations and highly active individual claimants. Since July 2024 detailed State…
Antitrust and Competition Advertising and Marketing Compliance in China Advertising compliance in China is a high-volume enforcement area: market regulators act on complaints, competitors sue, and claimants test every superlative. Rules…
Compliance and Investigations Corporate Compliance Programmes in China Corporate compliance programmes in China must prevent locally prevalent risks, meet the expectations of foreign regulators and prove they work. This page…
Compliance and Investigations Anti-Bribery and Corruption in China Anti-bribery and corruption enforcement in China reaches both givers and takers through criminal law and administrative commercial bribery rules. This page explains…
Compliance and Investigations Anti-Money Laundering in China Anti-money laundering in China entered a new phase when the revised Anti-Money Laundering Law took effect on 1 January 2025. This page…
Compliance and Investigations Internal and Government Investigations in China Internal investigations in China are routine for multinationals, but privilege, personal information, state secrets and data export rules change how they must…
Compliance and Investigations Cross-Border Regulatory Investigations Involving China Cross-border regulatory investigations involving China require cooperation with foreign authorities while respecting Chinese restrictions on evidence, data and state secrets. This page…
Compliance and Investigations White-Collar Crime in China White-collar crime in China affects foreign companies both as victims of employee fraud and as potential suspects. This page summarises the key…
Compliance and Investigations Criminal Defence in China: A Guide for Families and Employers Criminal defence in China is conducted by licensed PRC lawyers, but the decisions families and employers make in the first days can…
Compliance and Investigations Smuggling Cases in China: Customs Risk for Importers and Exporters Smuggling cases in China often start with ordinary customs declarations that understate value, misclassify goods or misuse bonded status. This page explains…
Compliance and Investigations State Secrets and Audit Working Papers in China State secrets rules shape what auditors, investment banks, foreign regulators and investigators can see of a Chinese business. This page explains the…
Compliance and Investigations National Security Compliance for Foreign Individuals and Research National security compliance has become a practical concern for foreign executives, consultants, academics and research organisations in China. This page explains the…
Compliance and Investigations NGO and INGO Regulation in China NGO and INGO regulation in China requires every overseas non-governmental organisation to register a representative office or file temporary activities through a…
Compliance and Investigations Professional Services Regulation in China Professional services regulation in China decides which firms may give legal, audit, tax, credit and research services, and how. Foreign providers face…
Compliance and Investigations Legal and Compliance Technology in China Legal and compliance technology in China must be configured for data localisation, cross-border transfer rules, cryptography requirements and AI regulation. This guide…
International Trade, Sanctions and Customs Export Controls and Sanctions in China Export controls and sanctions affecting China now work in three layers: Chinese controls on dual-use items and critical minerals, US, EU and…
International Trade, Sanctions and Customs Anti-Foreign Sanctions Law and Blocking Rules China's Anti-Foreign Sanctions Law, its 2025 implementing regulations, MOFCOM's blocking rules and the unreliable entity list give Beijing a full countermeasure toolkit.…
International Trade, Sanctions and Customs Rare Earths and Critical Minerals Controls China's rare earth controls and wider critical minerals export licensing now sit at the centre of global supply chains for magnets, batteries,…
International Trade, Sanctions and Customs Customs Compliance in China Customs compliance in China has moved from a back-office task to a board-level risk. The General Administration of Customs now relies on…
International Trade, Sanctions and Customs Tariffs, Origin and Customs Valuation The duty payable on goods entering China depends on three questions: what the goods are, where they come from and what they…
International Trade, Sanctions and Customs Inspection and Quarantine in China Inspection and quarantine in China decide whether food, agricultural products, consumer goods, chemicals and equipment can enter the market at all. Since…
International Trade, Sanctions and Customs Cross-Border E-Commerce in China Cross-border e-commerce lets foreign brands reach Chinese consumers without full import approvals and lets Chinese sellers reach the world. Both directions now…
International Trade, Sanctions and Customs Trade Remedies: Anti-Dumping, Anti-Subsidy and Safeguards Trade remedies are among the sharpest tools in today's trade disputes. China's Ministry of Commerce now runs investigations that track wider political…
International Trade, Sanctions and Customs WTO and Trade Agreements: China's Commitments and FTAs WTO and trade agreements still set most of the rules for trade with China, even as tariff conflicts override them in sensitive…
International Trade, Sanctions and Customs US Section 337 Investigations for Chinese Companies Section 337 investigations at the US International Trade Commission can exclude a Chinese product from the US market in about a year…
International Trade, Sanctions and Customs International Trade Disputes Involving China International trade disputes with Chinese counterparties increasingly start with a tariff, a sanctions designation or an export licence rather than a defective…
International Trade, Sanctions and Customs Supply Chain Due Diligence and Forced Labour Rules Supply chain due diligence is now a legal condition of selling China-linked goods into the US and EU. This guide explains the…
Data, Cybersecurity and AI Personal Information Protection (PIPL) Personal information protection in China is governed by the PIPL and a growing body of CAC rules on officers, audits, facial recognition…
Data, Cybersecurity and AI Cross-Border Data Transfer Cross-border data transfer from China is now governed by clear thresholds, broad exemptions and three mechanisms: CAC security assessment, standard contract and,…
Data, Cybersecurity and AI Important Data and Data Security Important data is the category of non-public data that China regulates most closely after state secrets and core data. This guide explains…
Data, Cybersecurity and AI Data Breach Response in China Data breach response in China has been transformed by the CAC incident reporting measures in force since November 2025 and the amended…
Data, Cybersecurity and AI Data Compliance in IPOs and M&A Data compliance in IPOs and M&A involving Chinese companies now affects timetables, valuation and deal terms. Cybersecurity review, CSRC filings, PIPL obligations…
Data, Cybersecurity and AI Health and Medical Data in China Health and medical data in China is governed by an unusually dense set of rules: the PIPL treats it as sensitive, new…
Data, Cybersecurity and AI Employee Personal Information in China Employee personal information in China can often be processed without consent, but only where lawfully adopted labour rules support it. This guide…
Data, Cybersecurity and AI EU Data and Cyber Rules for Chinese Companies EU data and cyber rules for Chinese companies have multiplied: the GDPR, NIS2, the Cyber Resilience Act, the AI Act, the Data…
Data, Cybersecurity and AI Data Assets and Data Trading in China China now lets companies recognise data assets in their accounts, register property rights in data and trade data products on state-backed exchanges.…
Data, Cybersecurity and AI AI Regulation and Governance in China AI regulation in China combines national laws, technology-specific CAC rules, mandatory labelling standards and pre-launch filing. With the amended Cybersecurity Law in…
Data, Cybersecurity and AI AI Disputes and Case Law in China AI disputes in China now have a substantial body of case law, from AI image copyright and Ultraman platform liability to voice…
Data, Cybersecurity and AI AI in Employment in China AI in employment in China is governed by the PIPL, labour law, anti-discrimination rules and new platform worker measures rather than a…
Data, Cybersecurity and AI Connected Vehicle and Automotive Data in China Connected vehicle data is among the most tightly controlled data in China. Location, in-cabin and exterior sensor data may be personal information…
Data, Cybersecurity and AI Healthcare AI in China Healthcare AI in China is being promoted by national policy and regulated through several overlapping regimes at once: medical device registration, clinical…
Intellectual Property Patents in China Patents in China are granted by CNIPA on a first-to-file basis and enforced through specialised courts that can award injunctions, punitive damages…
Intellectual Property Trademarks in China Trademarks in China belong, as a rule, to whoever files first, which makes early and well-planned registration the single most important step…
Intellectual Property Copyright in China Copyright in China arises automatically on creation and is enforced through courts that can award statutory damages of up to RMB 5…
Intellectual Property Trade Secrets in China Trade secrets in China are protected mainly by the Anti-Unfair Competition Law, revised with effect from 15 October 2025, supported by new…
Intellectual Property Designs in China: Design Patents and Beyond Designs in China are protected chiefly through design patents granted by CNIPA, which since 2021 last 15 years and can cover parts…
Intellectual Property Plant Variety Rights in China Plant variety rights in China were strengthened substantially by the 2021 Seed Law revision and the revised Regulations on the Protection of…
Intellectual Property Domain Names and Customs IP Protection in China Customs IP protection in China lets rights holders stop counterfeit and infringing goods at the border, most often as they leave Chinese…
Intellectual Property IP Litigation in China IP litigation in China is now a mainstream tool for international and domestic rights holders, heard by specialised courts with punitive damages,…
Intellectual Property IP Licensing and Commercialisation in China IP licensing in China succeeds or fails on details that foreign templates rarely cover: technology import and export classification, contract registration, withholding…
Intellectual Property SEP and FRAND Litigation in China SEP and FRAND litigation is now a global contest in which Chinese courts play a central role. They set worldwide royalty rates,…
Intellectual Property Pharmaceutical Patents and Patent Linkage in China Pharmaceutical patents in China now sit within a full exclusivity system: patent term compensation, a patent linkage mechanism with a nine-month stay,…
Intellectual Property Short Drama and Creative Content IP in China Short drama IP is the main asset of a fast-moving industry, but rapid production often leaves chain of title incomplete. With NRTA's…
Intellectual Property IP Protection Strategy in China An effective IP protection strategy in China combines early registrations, enforceable contracts, active monitoring and an agreed enforcement playbook. This guide explains…
Dispute Resolution Commercial and Contract Disputes in China Commercial and contract disputes with Chinese counterparties usually turn on a handful of questions: which law governs, which forum decides, whether assets…
Dispute Resolution Shareholder and Corporate Disputes in China Shareholder and corporate disputes in China have changed since the revised Company Law took effect on 1 July 2024. Minority investors gained…
Dispute Resolution Financial Disputes in China Financial disputes involving China range from defaulted onshore loans and guarantees to offshore bond claims, derivatives close-outs and mis-selling complaints by investors.…
Dispute Resolution International Arbitration Involving China International arbitration remains the preferred way to resolve cross-border disputes with Chinese parties, because awards travel well and proceedings stay private. The…
Dispute Resolution Domestic Arbitration in China Domestic arbitration in China is the default route for many disputes involving foreign-invested enterprises, which usually cannot send purely domestic contracts to…
Dispute Resolution Mediation in China and Cross-Border Mediation Mediation in China is actively promoted by courts and arbitral institutions and is often raised in every commercial dispute. Its value for…
Dispute Resolution Cross-Border Litigation and Enforcement of Judgments Cross-border litigation involving China has become more predictable since amendments to the Civil Procedure Law took effect on 1 January 2024, but…
Dispute Resolution Hong Kong Courts and HKIAC Arbitration Hong Kong courts and HKIAC arbitration give foreign and Chinese businesses a common law forum with unique links to mainland courts. Arrangements…
Dispute Resolution Foreign State Immunity in China China's Foreign State Immunity Law, in force since 1 January 2024, replaced absolute immunity with a restrictive approach. Foreign states can now…
Dispute Resolution Supreme People's Court Practice and Retrials Supreme People's Court retrials are the last and narrowest route to reopen an effective Chinese judgment. Knowing the statutory grounds, the six-month…
Dispute Resolution Administrative Litigation and Reconsideration in China Administrative litigation in China and administrative reconsideration are the two formal ways to challenge a regulator's decision. Since the revised reconsideration law…
Dispute Resolution Securities Misrepresentation Class Actions in China Securities class actions in China have moved from theory to practice. Opt-out special representative actions, removal of the old regulatory pre-condition and…
Dispute Resolution Product Liability and Tort Claims in China Product liability in China combines strict producer liability under the Civil Code with punitive damages, active recall regulators and public interest claims.…
Dispute Resolution Insurance and Professional Negligence Disputes in China Insurance disputes in China are shaped by a policyholder-friendly Insurance Law, firm claims timetables and an active regulator, with a major reform…
Dispute Resolution Construction and Infrastructure Disputes in China Construction and infrastructure disputes in China turn on contract validity, final accounts, delay and the contractor's priority right over the project. A…
Dispute Resolution Real Estate Disputes in China Real estate disputes in China are shaped by state land ownership, registration-based property rights and exclusive local jurisdiction. The developer downturn has…
Dispute Resolution Climate Change Litigation in China Climate change litigation in China is still developing, but the Ecological Environment Code, in force since 15 August 2026, gives climate goals…
Restructuring and Insolvency Out-of-Court and Cross-Border Restructuring Cross-border restructuring of a Chinese group means bridging offshore debt held at Cayman, BVI or Hong Kong holding companies and onshore assets…
Restructuring and Insolvency Court-Appointed Administrators and Liquidators in China Once a Chinese court accepts a bankruptcy case, court-appointed administrators take control of the debtor's assets, contracts and records. This guide explains…
Restructuring and Insolvency Creditor Representation in Chinese Insolvencies Effective creditor representation in China depends on timing, documents and votes. This guide explains how foreign lenders, suppliers and bondholders protect their…
Restructuring and Insolvency Distressed Investment and Defaulted Bonds in China Distressed investment in China spans defaulted onshore bonds, offshore dollar bonds of Chinese issuers, loan portfolios and new money into court reorganisations.…
Restructuring and Insolvency Non-Performing Asset Disposal in China Non-performing asset disposal in China now runs through several channels: batch sales to asset management companies, a national transfer platform for corporate…
Restructuring and Insolvency Distressed Real Estate in China Distressed real estate in China is shaped by a priority stack that puts homebuyers first, by policy programmes to finish and absorb…
Restructuring and Insolvency Corporate Rescue and Bail-Outs in China Corporate rescue in China ranges from negotiated bank standstills to court reorganisation and state-backed bail-outs. This guide explains the available tools, how…
Employment Employment Contracts and Policies in China Employment contracts in China must be in writing, contain mandatory terms and work alongside a handbook adopted through democratic procedures. This guide…
Employment Labour Arbitration and Litigation in China Labour arbitration in China is the mandatory first step for nearly every workplace dispute. This guide explains jurisdiction and time limits, final…
Employment Layoffs, Transfers and Restructuring in China Layoffs in China must follow a recognised legal route: mutual agreement, a statutory individual ground, the Article 41 economic layoff procedure or…
Employment Non-Compete Obligations in China Non-compete obligations in China are enforceable only for employees with real access to confidential information, for up to two years, and only…
Employment Social Insurance, Benefits and Pensions in China Social insurance in China is mandatory, locally administered and increasingly enforced. Since September 2025 employee waivers are invalid, retirement ages are rising…
Employment Trade Unions and Collective Bargaining in China Trade unions in China sit within the ACFTU system and play a statutory role in workplace rules, dismissals, layoffs and collective consultation.…
Employment Work Permits and Mobility in China Work permits in China combine a points-based work authorisation with a work-type residence permit, and both must match the actual employer, role…
Employment Employment Investigations and Due Diligence in China Employment investigations in China must produce evidence that survives labour arbitration while respecting personal information, data export and state secrets rules. In…
Employment Employee Equity Incentive Plans in China Employee equity incentive plans help Chinese and multinational businesses attract and keep talent, but they sit at the junction of individual income…
Tax Tax Advisory and Planning in China Tax advisory and planning helps inbound and outbound groups make deliberate choices on structure, operations, financing and repatriation before China's rules make…
Tax M&A and Restructuring Tax in China M&A and restructuring tax in China can add significant cost to a deal or reorganisation, but qualifying transactions can defer gains, avoid…
Tax Indirect Transfers and Non-Resident Tax in China Indirect transfers and non-resident tax rules determine when foreign investors pay Chinese tax on dividends, interest, royalties and gains, and when the…
Tax Transfer Pricing in China Transfer pricing in China is enforced through annual related-party reporting, three-tier contemporaneous documentation and data-driven investigations that can reach back ten years.…
Tax Tax Disputes in China Tax disputes in China are shaped by data-driven audits, short appeal deadlines and, for now, a rule requiring tax to be settled…
Tax Tax Due Diligence in China Tax due diligence on a Chinese target should do more than list filing gaps. It must quantify historical exposures, test whether incentives…
Tax IPO and Financing Tax in China IPO tax planning determines how smoothly a Chinese company lists and what founders, employees and investors keep afterwards. This guide covers pre-listing…
Tax Real Estate Tax in China Real estate tax in China is a cluster of taxes levied on acquisition, holding, development and disposal of property. Land appreciation tax…
Tax Individual Income Tax and Executive Incentives in China Individual income tax shapes every executive package in China, from monthly salary to options and restricted shares. This guide explains residence and…
Tax Private Client Tax in China Private client tax in China works differently from most wealthy jurisdictions: there is no inheritance, gift or wealth tax, but residents pay…
Tax Offshore Trusts and Individual Income Tax in China Offshore trusts used by Chinese families now face dedicated tax rules. MOF and STA Announcement No. 21 of 2026, effective 24 July…
Real Estate and Construction Real Estate M&A in China Real estate M&A in China usually means buying a project company rather than a building, because direct transfers trigger heavy transaction taxes.…
Real Estate and Construction Commercial Real Estate Investment in China Commercial real estate investment in China is open to foreign capital, but land tenure, foreign exchange rules, transfer taxes and exit routes…
Real Estate and Construction Real Estate Development in China Real estate development in China runs on a fixed sequence of land grant, permits, construction and sale. After the developer crisis, policy…
Real Estate and Construction Primary Land Development and Urban Renewal in China Primary land development and urban renewal decide how land in Chinese cities is prepared and reused. Land reserve rules now keep site…
Real Estate and Construction Commercial Leasing and Build-to-Suit in China Commercial leasing in China rests on Civil Code rules that override negotiated terms, from the 20-year cap to tenant pre-emption and the…
Real Estate and Construction Logistics and Industrial Real Estate in China Logistics and industrial real estate in China is open to foreign capital, but value depends on land grant conditions, permits and how…
Real Estate and Construction Hotels and Leisure Investment in China Hotels and leisure assets in China combine time-limited land use rights, a stack of operating licences and long-term brand relationships. With visa-free…
Real Estate and Construction Real Estate Funds in China Real estate funds in China now have clearer rules and a public exit. A 2023 pilot lets eligible managers hold income-producing property…
Real Estate and Construction Real Estate Finance in China Real estate finance in China now favours completed, income-producing assets and projects on official support lists. Lenders must also navigate priority rules…
Real Estate and Construction Property Management and Compliance in China Property management compliance in China decides how buildings are run, how service providers are changed and who is liable when safety, data…
Real Estate and Construction Planning and Environment for Real Estate in China Planning and environment rules decide what can be built on Chinese land, when work can start and what liabilities come with a…
Real Estate and Construction Construction Projects in China Construction projects in China are governed by the Construction Law, the Civil Code, tendering rules and a growing body of court interpretation.…
ESG, Environment and Climate ESG Advisory in China ESG advisory in China now starts with legal obligations rather than reporting. Mandatory exchange guidelines, national disclosure standards, the Ecological Environment Code…
ESG, Environment and Climate Environmental Law in China Environmental law in China now sits in a single Ecological Environment Code, in force since 15 August 2026, which replaced ten statutes.…
ESG, Environment and Climate EHS Compliance in China EHS compliance in China combines environmental, work safety, occupational health and fire rules, and since 1 May 2026 a dedicated Hazardous Chemicals…
ESG, Environment and Climate Green and Sustainable Finance in China Green and sustainable finance in China now rests on a single project catalogue shared by loans, bonds and other labelled products, while…
ESG, Environment and Climate Carbon Markets and CCER in China China's carbon markets and CCER scheme are moving from a power-sector pilot to an economy-shaping price signal. The national ETS now covers…
ESG, Environment and Climate Climate Risk and Net Zero in China Climate risk and net zero have moved from voluntary pledges to binding policy in China, through the dual carbon goals, the 2035…
ESG, Environment and Climate ESG Disclosure and Greenwashing in China ESG disclosure and greenwashing are now one compliance issue. Major A-share companies published their first mandatory sustainability reports in 2026, national standards…
ESG, Environment and Climate ESG Due Diligence in Funds and M&A in China ESG due diligence on China targets and funds now carries a price. The Ecological Environment Code, carbon market expansion, mandatory sustainability reporting…
ESG, Environment and Climate Corporate Power Purchase Agreements in China Corporate power purchase agreements in China run mainly through regulated power trading centres and green electricity certificates. Market-based pricing under Document 136,…
Private Client and Family Office Family Office Structuring for Chinese Families Family office structuring for Chinese families usually means dividing work between an onshore coordinating company and an international hub such as Hong…
Private Client and Family Office Family Trusts in China and Offshore Family trusts give Chinese families a way to protect assets and plan inheritance across generations. Onshore trusts run through licensed trust companies…
Private Client and Family Office Succession and Estate Planning in China Succession and estate planning in China rests on the Civil Code, which sets statutory heirs, recognises six forms of will and introduced…
Private Client and Family Office Family Governance and Constitutions Family governance decides whether a Chinese family enterprise survives its second and third generations. A family constitution records the family's agreed rules,…
Private Client and Family Office Family Enterprise Control Structures Family enterprise control in China rarely sits in the operating company. It is built from holding partnerships, articles of association, voting agreements,…
Private Client and Family Office Family Enterprise Crisis Response A family enterprise crisis, from a founder's death or detention to a guarantee default or a family feud, can freeze a Chinese…
Private Client and Family Office Cross-Border Inheritance and Marriage Cross-border inheritance and marriage issues arise whenever a family's people or assets span China and other countries. PRC conflict rules point to…
Private Client and Family Office Family Disputes Family disputes in Chinese business families combine succession, matrimonial, corporate and trust claims, often across the mainland, Hong Kong and offshore jurisdictions.…
Private Client and Family Office Global Asset Planning for Chinese Families Global asset planning lets Chinese families hold wealth across several jurisdictions lawfully and pass it on securely. It has to work within…
Financial Institutions Banks in China: Regulation, Foreign Entry and Reform Banks in China fund most of the economy and are supervised by NFRA and the PBOC under rules that are now being…
Financial Institutions Securities and Futures Firms in China Securities and futures firms in China operate under CSRC licensing, a Futures and Derivatives Law in force since 2022 and policies that…
Financial Institutions Insurance and Reinsurance in China Insurance and reinsurance in China are entering a new phase. NFRA published a draft revision of the Insurance Law in September 2026,…
Financial Institutions Trust Companies in China Trust companies in China are being rebuilt around service, wealth and charitable business. New Trust Company Measures took effect on 1 January…
Financial Institutions Non-Bank Financial Institutions in China Non-bank financial institutions in China range from NFRA-licensed consumer, auto and leasing finance companies to locally supervised lenders and factors. Rules issued…
Technology, Media and Telecoms Technology Sector in China The technology sector in China is open to foreign software and hardware businesses, but each activity carries its own rules on telecom…
Technology, Media and Telecoms Telecoms and Value-Added Telecom Services in China Value-added telecom services in China cover data centres, cloud, internet access, online platforms, apps and call centres. Licensing determines who may operate…
Technology, Media and Telecoms Media and Entertainment in China Media and entertainment in China offers a vast audience but a closed door to most foreign ownership. Film, streaming, micro-short dramas and…
Technology, Media and Telecoms Gaming in China Gaming in China is the world's largest game market by players and one of its most regulated. Every online game needs an…
Technology, Media and Telecoms E-commerce in China E-commerce in China is open to foreign ownership but tightly supervised. A revised Anti-Unfair Competition Law, new platform pricing rules, mandatory tax…
Technology, Media and Telecoms Semiconductors and Critical Technologies in China Semiconductors and critical technologies are now governed as much by geopolitics as by commerce. China's dual-use export controls and rare earth measures,…
Technology, Media and Telecoms Data Centres and New Infrastructure in China Data centres and new infrastructure underpin China's push for computing power and AI. Investors must navigate IDC licensing and a foreign ownership…
Technology, Media and Telecoms Space Sector in China: Commercial Space Law and Investment The space sector in China now includes hundreds of commercial launch, satellite and data companies, a new CNSA commercial space department and…
Technology, Media and Telecoms Low-Altitude Economy in China: Drones, eVTOL and Regulation China's low-altitude economy, spanning drones, eVTOL air taxis, general aviation and vertiport infrastructure, is growing under rules built between 2024 and 2026.…
Life Sciences and Healthcare Pharmaceuticals in China: Regulation, Access and Compliance Pharmaceuticals in China entered a new phase in 2026: revised Implementing Regulations of the Drug Administration Law and data protection measures took…
Life Sciences and Healthcare Biotech Licensing and Business Development in China Biotech licensing has turned China into a leading source of new molecules for global pharma. Out-licences, options and NewCo deals now need…
Life Sciences and Healthcare Medical Devices in China: Registration, Access and Compliance Medical devices in China reach patients through three gates: NMPA registration, hospital procurement and insurance payment. This guide explains how classification, registration,…
Life Sciences and Healthcare Healthcare Services and Health Insurance in China Healthcare services in China combine a public hospital system, near-universal basic medical insurance and a fast-growing private and commercial insurance market. This…
Energy, Resources and Infrastructure Power and Electricity in China: Markets, Pricing and Investment Power and electricity in China are now traded in markets that reach almost every province, with spot prices, capacity payments and green…
Energy, Resources and Infrastructure Renewables and Clean Energy in China Renewable energy in China now competes in electricity markets instead of relying on fixed tariffs, and a revised Renewable Energy Law is…
Energy, Resources and Infrastructure Oil, Gas and Petrochemicals in China: Law, Access and Deals Oil, gas and petrochemicals in China are governed by a framework rebuilt in 2025 and 2026: a new Energy Law, a revised…
Energy, Resources and Infrastructure Hydrogen, Ammonia and Energy Storage in China Hydrogen, ammonia and energy storage in China are scaling fast, but the rules are still being written. The Energy Law now treats…
Energy, Resources and Infrastructure Mining and Minerals in China: Rights, Controls and Investment Mining and minerals in China are governed by a revised Mineral Resources Law, dedicated rare earth regulations and an expanding export control…
Energy, Resources and Infrastructure PPP Projects in China: The New Franchise Mechanism PPP projects in China now follow a new mechanism introduced in November 2023: user-pays franchises only, priority for private enterprises and NDRC…
Energy, Resources and Infrastructure Water, Waste and Public Utilities in China Water, waste and public utilities in China are being reshaped by the Ecological Environment Code, effective 15 August 2026, the user-pays PPP…
Automotive and Mobility New Energy Vehicles and Batteries New energy vehicles now dominate China's car market, and the rules around them have shifted from subsidies to battery safety, recycling, export…
Automotive and Mobility Autonomous Driving and Connected Vehicles Autonomous driving in China has reached a turning point: the first L3 vehicles were approved in December 2025, robotaxis run under city…
Industrials and Manufacturing Chemicals The rules for chemicals in China were overhauled in 2026, with a new Hazardous Chemicals Safety Law and a consolidated Ecological Environment…
Industrials and Manufacturing Robotics and Embodied AI in China Robotics and embodied AI are a national priority in China, backed by the 15th Five-Year Plan, new standards and active capital markets.…
Consumer, Retail and Food Consumer Brands and Retail in China Consumer brands and retail in China are open to foreign ownership, but tightly regulated in how products are marketed, priced and sold.…
Consumer, Retail and Food Food and Agribusiness in China Food and agribusiness in China are governed by strict food safety rules, a food security agenda and detailed import controls. The Food…
Transport, Logistics and Shipping Aviation in China: Airlines, Leasing and Regulation Aviation in China is being reshaped by a fully revised Civil Aviation Law that takes effect on 1 July 2026. This guide…
Transport, Logistics and Shipping Ports and Rail in China: Investment, Concessions and Regulation Ports and rail in China are open to foreign capital on paper, but access runs through state-owned partners, concessions and sector licensing.…
Transport, Logistics and Shipping Shipping and Maritime in China: The Revised Maritime Code and Beyond Shipping and maritime in China operate under a revised Maritime Code in force since 1 May 2026. This guide explains the key…
Topic hubs Greater Bay Area: A Cross-Border Guide for Business The Greater Bay Area joins Hong Kong, Macao and nine Guangdong cities into one economic region with three legal systems, three currencies…
Topic hubs Hainan Free Trade Port: Customs, Tax and Investment Guide Since 18 December 2025 the Hainan Free Trade Port has operated as an island-wide special customs supervision zone, with zero tariffs on…
Topic hubs Belt and Road: Legal Guide to Projects and Partnerships More than a decade after its launch, the Belt and Road Initiative has moved from mega-projects to smaller, greener and more commercially…
Topic hubs China and the US: Managing Trade, Technology and Investment Risk Relations between China and the US now run on a series of time-limited truces layered over permanent legal tools: tariffs, export controls,…
Topic hubs China and Europe: Trade, Investment and Regulation in 2026 Business between China and Europe is growing more regulated in both directions. Brussels has added investment screening, foreign subsidy control, trade defence…
Topic hubs Artificial Intelligence in China Artificial intelligence in China is regulated product by product: pre-launch filing, mandatory labelling, content duties and new rules for human-like AI, all…
Topic hubs China Data Compliance China data compliance now runs on thresholds, filings and deadlines: easier cross-border transfers since 2024, but audits, officer reporting, four-hour incident reports…
Topic hubs Export Controls and Countermeasures Export controls and countermeasures now work in three layers: China's own dual-use and critical mineral licensing, US, EU and UK restrictions on…
Topic hubs ESG and Carbon in China ESG and carbon in China are now matters of binding law: a new Ecological Environment Code, mandatory sustainability reports for major listed…
Topic hubs Digital Assets and Tokenisation Digital assets and tokenisation follow a sharp mainland-Hong Kong divide. The February 2026 notice prohibits crypto, stablecoin and unapproved RWA business on…
Topic hubs Doing Business in China: A Guide for Foreign Companies Doing business in China is now easier to start and harder to run well. This guide maps the decisions foreign companies face,…
Topic hubs Scam and Impersonation Alerts Our scam and impersonation alerts help businesses dealing with China recognise fake lawyers, forged court and regulator notices, payment redirection and bogus…
Annual reviews China Legal Outlook 2027 Our China legal outlook 2027 reviews a year of consolidation, from the Ecological Environment Code and the VAT Law to new pricing…
Annual reviews Antitrust in China: 2026 Review Antitrust in China in 2026 centred on the campaign against destructive price competition: a food delivery sector inquiry, a record penalty against…
Annual reviews China Tax: 2026 Review and 2027 Outlook China tax in 2026 was a year of new statutes and sharper administration: the VAT Law took effect, export rebates were cut…
Annual reviews Bankruptcy and Restructuring in China: 2026 Review Bankruptcy and restructuring in China entered a new phase in 2026. The Enterprise Bankruptcy Law rewrite passed its second reading, the largest…
Annual reviews Securities Enforcement in China: 2026 Review Securities enforcement in China reached new levels of scale and coordination in 2025 and 2026. The CSRC issued 661 penalty decisions in…
Annual reviews Financial Regulation in China: 2026 Review Financial regulation in China entered a statute-building phase in 2026. A draft Financial Law had two readings, the PBOC Law and Banking…
Annual reviews China Regulatory Tracker This China regulatory tracker brings together the major PRC legal and regulatory changes of 2024 to 2027 in one place. For each,…